Pertumbuhan, Ketimpangan dan Kemiskinan : Kebijakan Pro-Poor Pemerintah untuk Penduduk Miskin

Perubahan demografi, khususnya di kawasan ASEAN menghadapi persoalan yang pelik yaitu angka kelahiran yang tinggi. Beberapa fakta empiris menuturkan akan terjadi trade off antara kualitas dan kuantitas akibat angka kelahiran yang tinggi, namun efek dari investasi modal manusia yang dilakukan orang tua sejak dini terhadap keberhasilan anak di masa mendatang lebih dimaksimalkan dalam modernisasi ekonomi , maka dari itu kualitas lebih diutamakan dibanding kuantitas (Lawson dan Mace, 2009) Dalam buku referensi ini pembahasan diawali dengan topik Kependudukan dan Kemiskinan, dimana membahas mengenai Transisi Demografi : Penurunan Fertilitas dan Trend Pertumbuhan Ekonomi di ASEAN. Selain itu dibahas juga mengenai akses perempuan miskin terhadap pelayanan umum. Topik berikutnya mengenai ketahanan pangan. Kualitas dan kuantitas penduduk akan berpengaruh terhadap kerawanan pangan (food insecurity) rumah tangga Kabupaten/Kota. Topik menarik lainnya dibahas pada bagian ketiga yakni pertumbuhan, ketimpangan dan kemiskinan di Indonesia. Tentu saja harapan-harapan berhubungan dengan tiga hal tersebut akan akan erat sekali dengan berbagai strategi yang diambil oleh pemerintah. Topik keempat membahas mengenai berbagai kebijakan pemerintah bagi penduduk miskin. Dalam bagian ini diawali diskusi mengenai kondisi kemiskinan di Indonesia. Selanjutnya dibahas kebijakan pemerintah bidang kesehatan di negara-negara berpendapatan rendah. Pemerintah di Indonesia mengeluarkan kebijakan untuk memberikan bantuan social tunai serta Dana Desa yang diharapkan akan berpengaruh terhadap pengalokasian sumberdaya, ketimpangan dan produksi.

 

Order now

Order via Whatsapp

 

Author Biography

Dr. Azwardi, S.E., M.Si. adalah seorang dosen di Fakultas Ekonomi Universitas Sriwijaya sejak tahun 1992 sampai dengan sekarang. Beliau meraih gelar Sarjana dengan program studi Ilmu Ekonomi dan Studi Pembangunan di Universitas Sriwijaya pada tahun 1993. Pada tahun 1996 memperoleh gelar Magister Sains dengan program studi Ilmu Ekonomi dan Studi Pembangunan di Universitas Syah Kuala. Kemudian, ia memperoleh gelar Doktor dengan program studi Ilmu Ekonomi di Universitas Padjadjaran pada tahun 2007. Beliau mengajar pada berbagai mata kuliah di Fakultas Ekonomi Universitas Sriwijaya, antara lain Teori Ekonomi Makro, Ekonomi Publik, Seminar Kebijakan Publik, Ekonomi Regional, Perencanaan Pembangunan, Ekonomi Sumber Daya Alam dan Lingkungan, serta Evaluasi Proyek dan Pembangunan. Pada tahun 1998, beliau menjadi Sekretaris Jurusan Ekonomi Pembangunan. Tahun 2010, beliau menjadi Ketua Peneliti Ekonomi P3EM. Setelah itu, menjabat sebagai Ketua Jurusan Ekonomi Pembangunan (S1) pada tahun 2011, dan menjabat sebagai Ketua Program Studi Ilmu Ekonomi (S2) pada tahun 2015. Hingga saat ini, beliau menjabat sebagai Wakil Dekan I Fakultas Ekonomi di Bidang Akademik sejak tahun 2020 dan menjabat sebagai Ketua Program Studi Ilmu Ekonomi (S3) dari tahun 2021. Email: azwardi@fe.unsri.ac.id

Alghifari Mahdi Igamo, S.E, M.S.E adalah seorang dosen pada Program Studi Ekonomi Pembangunan Fakultas Ekonomi Universitas Sriwijaya. Menyelesaikan S1 Ekonomi Pembangunan di Universitas Sriwijaya pada tahun 2016, dengan konsentrasi Ekonomi Moneter. Pada tahun 2018 menyelesaikan S2 Ilmu Ekonomi di Program Pascasarjana Ilmu Ekonomi Universitas Indonesia. Prestasi yang pernah diraih mengikuti Program Riset Keilmuan Kemendikbudristek tahun 2021. Email: alghifari@unsri.ac.id

Nugraha Pukuh, menyelesaikan pendidikan Diploma IV (DIV) jurusan Statistik Sosial Kependudukan di Sekolah Tinggi Ilmu Statistik (2007) dan melanjutkan program Magister Ekonomi Kependudukan dan Ketenagakerjaan Pada Fakultas Ekonomi dan Bisnis Universitas Indonesia (2016-2018). Saat ini mengabdi sebagai ASN di Badan Pusat Statistik Kabupaten Ogan Komering Ilir, Sumatera Selatan. Selain itu juga aktif dalam kegiatan penulisan karya ilmiah pada bidang ekonomi dan sosial demografi. Beberapa Karya ilmiah yang ditulis pernah dipresentasikan di konferensi Internasional seperti Indonesia Development Forum (IDF) 2017, South-East Asia Biennial Conference on Population and Health 2018, dan International Conference And Workshop On Gender (ICWG 2018) serta meraih penghargaan ajang call for paper diantaranya yaitu Badan Kebijakan Fiskal (2020 dan 2021), 2 nd Sumatranomics – BI Sumut (2021), SRKP - OJK (2021), PUSAKA JATENG - BI Jateng (2022), Karya Riset Ilmiah (KARISMA) - OJK Institute (2022). Email : nugrahapukuh@yahoo.com

Hayu Fadlun Widyasthika, bekerja sebagai ASN di BPS Kabupaten Ogan Komering Ilir, Sumatera Selatan. Pendidikan yang pernah ditempuh yaitu D-IV jurusan Statistik Sosial dan Kependudukan di Sekolah Tinggi Ilmu Statistik Jakarta (2003- 2017) dan magister Ilmu Ekonomi Universitas Sriwijaya (2015- 2017). Aktif dalam kegiatan kepenulisan bertemakan kemiskinan, gender dan pertumbuhan ekonomi. Penghargaan kepenulisan yang pernah diraih yaitu pada Call For Paper Badan Kebijakan Fiskal (2020 & 2021), Call For Ideas Badan Kebijakan Fiskal (2021), 2 nd Sumatranomics – BI Sumut (2021), SRKP - OJK (2021), PUSAKA JATENG - BI Jateng (2022), Karya Riset Ilmiah (KARISMA) - OJK Institute (2022), Kompetisi Artikel Perekonomian - BI Sulsel (2022). Email : fadlun.hayu@gmail.com

 

References

Abdulai, A.-M., & Shamshiry, E. (2014). Theory and practice on the nexus between poverty, natural resources and governance. In Linking sustainable livelihoods to natural resources and governance (pp. 11–40). Springer.

Adams Jr, R. H. (2004). Economic growth, inequality and poverty: estimating the growth elasticity of poverty. World Development, 32(12), 1989–2014.

Adams, R. H. (2003). Economic growth, inequality and poverty: Findings from a new data set (Vol. 2972). World Bank Publications.

ADB. (2013). Food security in Asia and the Pacific. In Asian Development Bank. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1359-8368(01)00020-8

Aigner-Walder, B., & Döring, T. (2012). The effects of population ageing on private consumption—A simulation for Austria based on household data up to 2050. Eurasian Economic Review, 2(1), 63–80.

Alkire, S., & Santos, M. E. (2013). A Multidimensional Approach: Poverty Measurement & Beyond. In Social Indicators Research (Vol. 112, Issue 2, pp. 239–257). Kluwer Academic Publishers. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-013-0257-3

Ames, B., Brown, W., Devarajan, S., & Izquierdo, A. (2001). Macroeconomic policy and poverty reduction. International Monetary Fund Washington, DC.

Atoloye, Abiodun Tolulope; Ogunba, Beatrice Olubukola; Samuel, F., & Olukemi. (2015). Spatial Pattern of Household Food Insecurity and Childhood Malnutrition in Akinyele Local Government Area, Nigeria Atoloye, Abiodun Tolulope 1 ; Ogunba, Beatrice Olubukola 2 ; Samuel, Folake Olukemi 1. 3(1), 235–250. https://doi.org/10.15640/ijhs.v3n1a15

Azzimonti, M., De Francisco, E., & Quadrini, V. (2014). Financial globalization, inequality, and the rising public debt. American Economic Review, 104(8), 2267–2302.

Baiardi, D., & Morana, C. (2016). The financial Kuznets curve: Evidence for the euro area. Journal of Empirical Finance, 39, 265–269.

Baiardi, D., & Morana, C. (2018). Financial development and income distribution inequality in the euro area. Economic Modelling, 70, 40–55.

Bank, W. (2008). Cash Transfer, Social Protection & Poverty Reduction.

Bank, W. (2011a). Global Development Horizons 2011: Multipolarity-The New Global Economy. The World Bank.

Bank, W. (2011b). Program Keluarga Harapan: Main Findings from the Impact Evaluation of Indonesia’s Pilot Household Conditional Cash Transfer Program.

Berry, C. J. (2018). Adam Smith: A very short introduction. Oxford University Press.

Blanden, J., & Machin, S. (2007). Recent Changes in Intergenerational Mobility in the UK: A Summary of UK Findings. December.

Blank, R. M. (2003). Selecting among anti-poverty policies: can an economist be both critical and caring? Review of Social Economy, 61(4), 447–469.

Bloom, D. E., Canning, D., Fink, G., & Finlay, J. E. (2009). Fertility, female labor force participation, and the demographic dividend. Journal of Economic Growth, 14(2), 79–101. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10887-009-9039-9

Bloom, D. E., Canning, D., & Sevilla, J. (2003). The Demographic Dividend (1st ed.). RAND Corporation.

BPS Indonesia. (2019). Keadaan Angkatan Kerja di Indonesia.

Bradshaw, T. K. (2007). Theories of poverty and anti-poverty programs in community development. Community Development, 38(1), 7–25.

Brueckner, M., Dabla Norris, E., & Gradstein, M. (2015). National income and its distribution. Journal of Economic Growth, 20(2), 149–175.

Chambers, D., & Dhongde, S. (2016). Convergence in income distributions: Evidence from a panel of countries. Economic Modelling, 59, 262–270.

Chen, S., & Ravallion, M. (2007). China’s (uneven) progress in poverty reduction. Journal of Development Economics, 82(1), 1–42.

Cingano, F. (2014). Trends in income inequality and its impact on economic growth.

Culyer, T., & Jonsson, B. (1986). Public and private health services: Complementarities and conflicts.

Davis, E. P. (2014). A review of the economic theories of poverty.

De Janvry, A., Finan, F., Sadoulet, E., & Vakis, R. (2006). Can conditional cash transfer programs serve as safety nets in keeping children at school and from working when exposed to shocks? Journal of Development Economics, 79(2), 349–373.

De la Maisonneuve, C., & Martins, J. O. (2015). The future of health and long-term care spending. OECD Journal: Economic Studies, 2014(1), 61–96.

Deininger, K., & Squire, L. (1998). New ways of looking at old issues: inequality and growth. Journal of Development Economics, 57(2), 259–287.

Di Matteo, L., & Di Matteo, R. (1998). Evidence on the determinants of Canadian provincial government health expenditures: 1965–1991. Journal of Health Economics, 17(2), 211–228.

Dimand, R. W., Spencer, B. J., & Swan, T. (2008). the Neoclassical Growth Model. NBER Working Paper Series, Working Paper, 13950.

Dollar, D., & Kraay, A. (2002). Growth is Good for the Poor. Journal of Economic Growth, 7(3), 195–225.

Dreger, C., & Reimers, H.-E. (2005). Health care expenditures in OECD countries: a panel unit root and cointegration analysis. Available at SSRN 651985.

Eastwood, R., & Lipton, M. (2011). Demographic transition in sub-Saharan Africa: How big will the economic dividend be? Population Studies, 65(1), 9–35. https://doi.org/10.1080/00324728.2010.547946

Edoumiekumo, S. G., Karimo, T. M., & Stephen, S. (n.d.). Determinants of Households ’ Poverty and Vulnerability in Bayelsa State of Nigeria. 2(12), 14–23.

Esen, E., & Celik Kecili, M. (2022). Economic growth and health expenditure analysis for Turkey: evidence from time series. Journal of the Knowledge Economy, 13(3), 1786–1800.

Fanta, F., & Upadhyay, M. P. (2009). Poverty reduction, economic growth and inequality in Africa. Applied Economics Letters, 16(18), 1791–1794.

FAO. (1996). The state of food and agriculture: food security:some macroeconomics dimensions (pp. 43–44).

FAO IFAD UNICEF, W. & W. (2017). The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2017.Building Resilience for Peace and Food Security. In Rome FAO. https://doi.org/10.1080/15226514.2012.751351

Ferreira, F. H. G., & Lugo, M. A. (2013). Multidimensional poverty analysis: Looking for a middle ground. World Bank Research Observer, 28(2), 220–235. https://doi.org/10.1093/wbro/lks013

Fiszbein, A., & Schady, N. R. (2009). Conditional cash transfers: reducing present and future poverty. World Bank Publications.

Fosu, A. K. (2008). Inequality and the growth–poverty nexus: Specification empirics using African data. Applied Economics Letters, 15(7), 563–566.

Fosu, A. K. (2010). The effect of income distribution on the ability of growth to reduce poverty: evidence from rural and urban African economies. American Journal of Economics and Sociology, 69(3), 1034–1053.

Frerer, K., & Vu, C. M. (2007). An anthropological view of poverty. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 16(1–2), 73–86.

Gelan, A. (2006). Cash or food aid? A general equilibrium analysis for Ethiopia. Development Policy Review, 24(5), 601–624.

Getzen, T. E. (2000). Health care is an individual necessity and a national luxury: applying multilevel decision models to the analysis of health care expenditures. Journal of Health Economics, 19(2), 259–270.

Gonzalez-Eiras, M., & Niepelt, D. (2012). Ageing, government budgets, retirement, and growth. European Economic Review, 56(1), 97–115.

Grijalva, D. F. (2011). Inequality and Economic Growth: Bridging the Short-run and the Long-run.

Halmos, K. (2011). The effect of FDI, exports and GDP on income inequality in 15 Eastern European countries. Acta Polytechnica Hungarica, 8(1), 123–136.

Harris, D. J. (2007). The classical theory of economic growth. The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, 1–10.

Hayes, A., & Setyonaluri, D. (2015). Taking advantage of the demographic dividend in Indonesia. A Brief Introduction to Theory and Practice.

Hill, H. (2021). What’s Happened to Poverty and Inequality in Indonesia over Half a Century? Asian Development Review, 38(1), 68–97.

Hitiris, T., & Posnett, J. (1992). The determinants and effects of health expenditure in developed countries. Journal of Health Economics, 11(2), 173–181.

House, Q. E., Alkire, S., Foster, J. E., Seth, S., Santos, M. E., Roche, J. M., & Ballon, P. (2015). Oxford Poverty & Human Development Initiative (OPHI) Oxford Department of International Development OPHI WORKING PAPER NO. 86 Multidimensional Poverty Measurement and Analysis: Chapter 5-The Alkire-Foster Counting Methodology.

Inchauspe, J., MacDonald, G., & Kobir, M. A. (2022). Wagner’s Law and the Dynamics of Government Spending on Indonesia . In Bulletin of Indonesian economic studies  (Vol. 58, Issue 1, pp. 79–95). Routledge . https://doi.org/10.1080/00074918.2020.1811837

Jauch, S., & Watzka, S. (2016). Financial development and income inequality: a panel data approach. Empirical Economics, 51(1), 291–314.

Joshi, G. R., & Joshi, B. (2017). Household food security: Trends and determinants in mountainous districts of Nepal. Future of Food: Journal on Food, Agriculture and Society, 5(2), 42–55.

Jung, S. Y., & Smith, R. J. (2007). The economics of poverty: Explanatory theories to inform practice. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 16(1–2), 21–39.

Karra, M., Canning, D., & Wilde, J. (2017). The Effect of Fertility Decline on Economic Growth in Africa: A Macrosimulation Model. Population and Development Review, 43(S1), 237–263. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/padr.12009

Ke, X., Saksena, P., & Holly, A. (2011). The determinants of health expenditure: a country-level panel data analysis. Geneva: World Health Organization, 26(1–28).

Kementrian Perencanaan Pembangunan Nasional/Badan Perencanaan Pembangunan Nasional (BAPPENAS). (2011). Rencana Aksi Nasional Pangan dan Gizi 2011-2015. 1–60. https://doi.org/351.077 Ind r

King, G., Lee-Woolf, C., Kivinen, E., Hrabovszki, G., & Fell, D. (2015). Understanding Food in the Context of Poverty, Economic Insecurity and Social Exclusion A report for the Food Standards Agency in Northern Ireland. April, 75.

Kose, M. A., Prasad, E., Rogoff, K., & Wei, S.-J. (2010). Financial globalization and economic policies. In Handbook of development economics (Vol. 5, pp. 4283–4359). Elsevier.

Kraay, A. (2006). When is growth pro-poor? Evidence from a panel of countries. Journal of Development Economics, 80(1), 198–227.

Kuznets, S. (2019). Economic growth and income inequality. In The gap between rich and poor (pp. 25–37). Routledge.

Kuznets, S. 1955. (1955). Economic Growth and Income Inequality. The American Economic Review. Volume XLV.

Lawson, P. S. (2014). An analysis of food poverty and the gender of household heads in Nigeria ’ s State of Lagos. 2(6), 126–129.

Lisenkova, K., Mérette, M., & Wright, R. (2012). The Impact of Population Ageing on the Labour Market:: Evidence from Overlapping Generations Computable General Equilibrium (OLG-CGE) Model of Scotland.

Lu, C., Schneider, M. T., Gubbins, P., Leach-Kemon, K., Jamison, D., & Murray, C. J. L. (2010). Public financing of health in developing countries: a cross-national systematic analysis. The Lancet, 375(9723), 1375–1387.

Murthy, V. N. R., & Okunade, A. A. (2009). The core determinants of health expenditure in the African context: Some econometric evidence for policy. Health Policy, 91(1), 57–62. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthpol.2008.10.001

Musgrove, P., Zeramdini, R., & Carrin, G. (2002). Basic patterns in national health expenditure. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 80, 134–146.

Nagarajan, N. R., Teixeira, A. A. C., & Silva, S. T. (2016). The impact of an ageing population on economic growth: an exploratory review of the main mechanisms . In Análise social  (Vol. 51, Issue 218, pp. 4–35). Instituto de Ciências Sociais da Universidade de Lisboa . https://go.exlibris.link/4lZ5V1ls

Ngunyi, A., Mwita, P. N., Odhiambo, R. O., & Masanja, V. G. (2015). Multidimensional Analysis of the Determinants of Poverty Indicators in the Lake Victoria Basin(Kenya). IOSR Journal of Mathematics, 11(3), 2278–5728. https://doi.org/10.9790/5728-11357387

Olayemi, A. O. (2012). Effects of Family Size on Household Food Security in Osun State, Nigeria. Adebayo Oyefunke Olayemi Asian Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development Asian Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development, 2(22), 136–141. https://doi.org/ISSN: 2224-4433

Pangan, D. K., Pertanian, K., & WFP. (2015). Food Security and Vulnerability Atlas of Indonesia 2015. 1–200.

Peer, A. (2018). Global poverty: Facts, FAQs, and how to help. World Vision. Https://Www. Worldvision. Org/Sponsorship-News-Stories/Global-Poverty-Facts# End.

Peters, A. C. (2002). An Application of Wagner’s “Law” of Expanding State Activity to Totally Diverse Countries. Transition, 1(31), 1–43.

Pinstrup-Andersen, P. (2009). Food security: definition and measurement. Food Security, 1(1), 5–7. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-008-0002-y

Priebe, J. (2016). How robust is Indonesia’s poverty profile? Adjusting for differences in needs. Bulletin of Indonesian Economic Studies, 52(2), 229–248.

Purwantini, T. B. (2012). Analysis of Food Consumption and Welfare Dynamics of Rice Farmers ’ Households (Analisis Dinamika Konsumsi Pangan dan Kesejahteraan Rumah Tangga Petani Padi). Prosiding Litbang Pertanian, 508–522.

Ram, R. (2011). Growth elasticity of poverty: direct estimates from recent data. Applied Economics, 43(19), 2433–2440.

Rank, M. R. (2004). One nation, underprivileged: Why American poverty affects us all. Oxford University Press.

Riches, G. (1997). Hunger, food security and welfare policies: issues and debates in First World societies. Proc Nutr Soc, 56, 63–74. https://doi.org/doi:10.1079/PNS19970010

Roche, J. M. (2013). Monitoring Progress in Child Poverty Reduction: Methodological Insights and Illustration to the Case Study of Bangladesh. Social Indicators Research, 112(2), 363–390. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-013-0252-8

Rosen, H. S. (2004). Public finance. In The encyclopedia of public choice (pp. 252–262). Springer.

Sameti, M., Esfahani, R. D., & Haghighi, H. K. (2012). Theories of poverty: A comparative analysis. Kuwait Chapter of Arabian Journal of Business and Management Review, 1(6), 45–56.

Schieber, G., & Maeda, A. (1999). Health Care Financing And Delivery In Developing Countries: Developing countries, which contain 84 percent of the world’s population, claim only 11 percent of the world’s health spending. Health Affairs, 18(3), 193–205.

Schiller, B. R. (2007). Economics of poverty and discrimination.

Schultz, T. P. (1998). Inequality in the Distribution of Personal Income in the World: How it is Changing and Why. Journal of Population Economics, 11(3), 307–344.

Shaffer, P. (2008). New thinking on poverty: Implications for globalisation and poverty reduction strategies.

Shin, I. (2012). Income inequality and economic growth. Economic Modelling, 29(5), 2049–2057.

Singh, R., & Sarkar, S. (2015). Children’s experience of multidimensional deprivation: Relationship with household monetary poverty. Quarterly Review of Economics and Finance, 56, 43–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.qref.2014.06.007

Son, H. (2008). Conditional cash transfer programs: an effective tool for poverty alleviation?

Sredojević, D., Cvetanović, S., & Bošković, G. (2016). Technological changes in economic growth theory: neoclassical, endogenous, and evolutionary-institutional approach. Economic Themes, 54(2), 177–194.

Todaro, Michael P. dan Smith, S. C. (2009). “Pembangunan Ekonomi”. Jilid 1. Erlangga, Jakarta.

Townsend, P. (1979). Poverty in the United Kingdom. Allen Lane and Penguin Books. - References - Scientific Research Publishing. Allen Lane and Penguin Books.

Tridico, P. (2010). Growth, inequality and poverty in emerging and transition economies. Transition Studies Review, 16(4), 979–1001.

Turner, K., & Lehning, A. J. (2007). Psychological theories of poverty. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 16(1–2), 57–72.

UNICEF. (2016). Ending Extreme Poverty: a Focus on Children. November 2015, 1–8.

van der Gaag, J., & Stimac, V. (2008). Towards a new paradigm for health sector development. Amsterdam: Amsterdam Institute for International Development.

Warr, P., & Yusuf, A. A. (2014). World food prices and poverty in Indonesia. Australian Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics, 58(1), 1–21.

Weinstein, J. R. (2008). Adam Smith (1723–1790). Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Wilson, G. A., & Rannala, B. (2003). Bayesian inference of recent migration rates using multilocus genotypes. Genetics, 163(3), 1177–1191.

Wolf, J. P. (2007). Sociological theories of poverty in urban America. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 16(1–2), 41–56.

World Bank. (2015). Ending Poverty and Hunger by 2030. World Bank Group, Washington, DC, 1–28.

World Bank. (2020). External debt stocks (% of GNI). World Bank Data.

Zagorski, K., Evans, M. D. R., Kelley, J., & Piotrowska, K. (2014). Does national income inequality affect individuals’ quality of life in Europe? Inequality, happiness, finances, and health. Social Indicators Research, 117(3), 1089–1110.

Zakari, S., Ying, L., & Song, B. (2014). Factors influencing household food security in West Africa: The case of southern Niger. Sustainability (Switzerland), 6(3), 1191–1202. https://doi.org/10.3390/su6031191